The Senate did not always rely on cloture, closed-door negotiations, and powerful party leaders to pass legislation. Committees developed bills, senators debated and amended them on the floor, and majority leaders managed the process without controlling it.

The Senate cannot determine what legislation will pass by counting cloture votes before debate begins. Floor debate reveals senators’ resolve, tests possible compromises, and produces the information needed to legislate.

The Senate’s growing reliance on cloture does not prove that major legislation cannot pass without 60 votes. It shows instead leaders’ reliance on cloture to manage debate, block unwanted amendments, and avoid difficult votes.

How majority leaders use the amendment tree to close the Senate floor to amendments—and how a simple rule change could reopen the process.

A detailed guide to how Senate majorities can avoid unlimited amendments in a talking filibuster.

An update.